Calculation: evaluates the ability to perform the numerical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, as well as mental simple mathematical problem. The maximum score is 6 points.
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The individuals with no formal education also had worse results on Arabic number dictation and Arabic number reading, as well as on mental and written mathematics calculations. First, the option to investigate the performance of individuals with no formal education on these tasks is because numbers are present and mathematical calculation exists in many everyday activities. Calculation ability under normal circumstances requires not only the comprehension of numerical concepts, but also that of conceptual abilities and other cognitive skills, so it is impossible predict the exact impact of daily activities on number learning and processing. The difficulties on Arabic number reading and Arabic number dictation were more marked for numbers containing hundreds and thousands. These findings corroborate previously results (De Luccia & Ortiz, 2009) showing that low education impacted performance on some mathematics tasks, such as orthographic transcoding of numbers. On mental mathematical calculations, the subjects had no problems for addition or subtraction, but all encountered difficulties with multiplication and division. This is particularly true for carrying out multiplications, which need knowledge of the times table, the most commonly used approach for teaching multiplication in Brazil. It is worth mentioning that individuals with no formal education performed mental calculation as well as with low-educated individuals (Table 2). This pattern probably occurred because simple addition and subtraction are more commonly used in everyday situations than other operations requiring more formal learning. This finding is important in as far as it supports the notion that, although analyzing the effect of education on individual performance during neuropsychological tests is paramount, the influence of social environment should also be investigated. This environment dictates whether the individual received stimuli to develop certain abilities or otherwise, further contributing to cognitive performance. For written mathematical calculations, individuals with no formal education were unable to solve, irrespective of mathematical operation involved (addition, subtraction, division, or multiplication), possibly because at this part of the task, the mathematical operations are more complex and then, probably more dependent of learning obtained through a formal education. Indeed, level of familiarity with carrying out arithmetic increases with years of formal education (De Luccia & Ortiz, 2009).
After the third version of the review [12], we developed a new tool to assess the risk of bias because the study designs of included studies have changed. In previous versions, we used items from tools to assess case series [28] and the prevalence of mental health disorders [29]. The new tool assessed possible biases in studies of prevalence in general and COVID-19 in particular [4,30]. We developed signalling questions in the domains of selection (2 items), information (3 items), and selective reporting (1 item) biases (S2 Text). For mathematical modelling studies, we used a checklist for assessing relevance and credibility [31]. Two authors independently assessed the risk of bias, using a customised online tool. A third reviewer resolved disagreements. 2ff7e9595c
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